A Case Study Into Horror: Structuralism and Feminism in Horror Films

Hello, readers! I hope that you’ve all had a wonderful Christmas holiday and that you will also have a great year in 2015 – I know that I will! I’m back on the blog again today to talk about horror films and the conventions and theories which appear in such films. Though they’re not my usual genre of choice (superhero films and comedies are my personal favourites), it was fun to branch out and experience something a bit different as part of my media studies.

A Case Study Into Horror: Structuralism and Feminism in Horror Films

The horror genre is one of the most popular in existence today; many people enjoy a good scary film every now and then, though I can’t say that I’m one of them! The genre was first developed in the 1890s by Georges Méliès, whose silent film Le Manoir du Diable is often credited as being the first horror film ever made. The horror films which I will be talking about in particular in this post are much more modern, all being produced in the last century – Halloween (1978), Scream (1996) and Cherry Falls (2000). These are all horror films which I would consider to be ‘mild’ – that is to say that they are not too overrun with extreme violence and gore – and they provide excellent examples of the traditions of their genre. I can’t promise that I won’t discuss spoilers, so if you haven’t seen the films and don’t want to be spoiled for them, read ahead in this post carefully and cautiously!

So what makes a horror film what it is? What is it about them that makes people enjoy watching them so much? Well, it doesn’t take a genius to recognise that there are some common features throughout the horror genre – known as ‘codes and conventions’. ‘Codes’ refer to how the film is actually put together in terms of its cinematography and editing (etc), and has two types: symbolic (e.g. music) and technical (e.g. lighting and camera positioning). Conventions are those aspects of the films which are generally expected by viewers – so in superhero films, for example, you expect the hero to wear some kind of costume which symbolises them and their alter-ego. Codes and conventions are the two components generally associated with structural theory (the idea that meaning is conveyed through systematic ideas and rules) and as such structural theory in itself is applicable to the horror genre. Developed by Michel Foucault and Jacques Lacan, structuralism is still an important film theory now, and others such as Ferdinand de Saussure have also impacted how structuralism is perceived by incorporating elements of semiotics.

The codes and conventions of horror are often considered to define what a horror film is, and should be, and they are therefore used to determine whether a film is a horror film or just a gory action film. Some of them I am sure you will be aware of, even if you don’t realise it: suspenseful music leading up to key scenes, excessive blood and gore, giant bloody knives as weapons, women being slain for their sexual promiscuity, male killers... The list goes on. In addition, there are some more subtle codes and conventions which might not be as obvious to you: have you ever, for example, realised that there is always side and back lighting which serves to emphasise what is happening on-screen? It’s something that you see, but might not necessarily always realise is there. Cool, huh?

Viewers and critics often look for these codes and conventions for a number of reasons: in order to predict the endings of horror films (because if they follow the conventional structure, it is usually likely that they will end in a conventional way, e.g. with the usual single female lead surviving to tell their horrific tale), to see if films are controversial and contrast the conventions by having unexpected twist(s), to decide whether the film is worthy of the title of ‘horror film’ – etc. Essentially, the codes and conventions are seen as ‘defining’ horror. All three of the films I am discussing (Halloween, Scream and Cherry Falls) exhibit at least some of the codes and conventions of the horror genre, and I am soon going to point seven of these out to you, whilst also incorporating the theory of feminism – which is also hugely prominent topic throughout almost all, if not all, horror films.

Feminist theory within the horror genre shows the female characters to take two primary roles: that of the victim, and that of the main, victorious character who survives until the end (the 'final girl'). The female victims are weak, often characterised as 'dumb blondes' - girls who focus more on partying or drinking than sensible activities like studying. These girls are therefore shown to lack common sense and are ignorant, giving ample 'reason' for them to die. In contrast, the female protagonists who work to try and defeat the male antagonist are shown to be virginal and pure, with innocence and intelligence that puts them above others. They are shown to have the positive qualities which support their success, even if they are lacking in physical strength and courage.

Now then, shall we begin talking about those codes and conventions I promised you?

#1: FEMALE VICTIMS, MALE VILLAINS

Perhaps one of the most prevalent conventions of the horror genre is the fact that most victims are female and the villains male. It is something that you can’t really ignore – it is an extremely prominent tradition throughout the horror genre. It was only around the 1970s/1980s that women began to gain more of a substantial role in horror films, sometimes even taking on the role of the villain themselves, predominantly due to the rising feminist movement which demanded, amongst other things, a fairer representation of women in the media in all its forms. It is therefore unsurprising that, in all three of the films I am discussing (Halloween, Scream and Cherry Falls), the protagonists are female and with male pursuers – in Halloween it is Laurie Strode being hunted by the psychotic Michael Myers, in Scream it is Sidney Prescott running from the mysterious and terrifying ‘Ghostface’, and in Cherry Falls it is Jody Marken desperately trying to escape from her revenge-obsessed English teacher Mr Leonard Marliston. This set-up between the sexes has been criticised massively in recent years, with feminist ideals working to overturn the overwhelming number of female victimisations in horror films – but for now, all of these films match the current ‘convention’ of female victimisation and male dominance and villainy.

Something else I’d like to mention is the ‘final girl’ trope which features often in horror films. This term was coined by Carol J. Clover, an American professor of film studies, rhetoric language and Scandinavian mythology, in her book Men, Women and Chainsaws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film. What the term signifies is how throughout a horror film where a group of girls is present, all but one will be killed off – leaving the ‘final girl’, who is then the one to either vanquish the killer by taking up a weapon and defeating them, or else escape alive. This is seen very clearly in Halloween, where two of Strode’s friends are murdered and she remains as the ‘final girl’ of their trio. Clover argues that at this point, where only one girl remains, the female protagonist automatically goes and adopts ‘masculine’ characteristics in order to survive – this is again seen clearly when Strode tries repeatedly to kill Myers by stabbing him with a knitting needle, a hanger and a knife, none of which does the trick but does enough to allow her to escape when he is shot and falls from the balcony. The entire concept of the ‘final girl’ therefore coincides with the portrayal of women in horror films, and also the feminist film theory – it is a convention of the horror genre in itself.

A final aspect of female victimisation to mention is the classic portrayal of promiscuous women as automatic victims. It is a huge trend in horror films that those girls who focus more on having a ‘good time’ (e.g. by partying, drinking, drug-taking and being sexually active), more so than those who, say, act sensibly and are studious and hard-working (like Strode), are likely to be the first to be killed – or are else the exclusive group to be killed. Feminist film critics slam this trend due to the fact that it does, amongst other things, undermine women and portrays them in a hugely derogatory manner. Taking this into account, Cherry Falls is one film which massively contrasts with the norm; it is the virgins and the inexperienced that are targeted by the killer in this film rather than those with copious amounts of sexual encounters. In this way, Cherry Falls does not conform to this particular misogynistic convention of the horror genre.

#2: YOUNG/TEENAGE CHARACTERS

This second convention of the horror genre ties in nicely with the first. Not only are most main characters female, they are also young; the majority of horror films focus on teenage, or at least young, protagonists. Why this is is not very clear – perhaps because young people are more susceptible to being scared, and therefore the ‘horror’ in horror films becomes more realistic and believable? Perhaps because it is most likely that young people will watch horror films and the characters need to be easier to empathise with? Who knows? Anyway, the point is, horror films predominantly focus on young people – and Halloween, Scream and Cherry Falls are no different. Strode is a seventeen-year-old student in Halloween – Prescott and Marken are similar in Scream and Cherry Falls respectively, both also being teenage students. This is therefore another convention of the genre which the title characters in all three films adhere to – they are young teenagers.

#3: CHASE SCENES

Chase scenes are just one of those sections of a horror film, much like in an action film, that you would be more surprised not to see than see. Usually appearing at the climaxes of the film where the killer's identity is revealed and also at the times of direct contact and conflict between said killer and the protagonist, they are a timelessly effective plot device to build tension and apprehension for what is to come. Both Halloween and Cherry Falls feature chase scenes where the victims are pursued mercilessly by the killers with weapons - audiences are made to watch with horror (no pun intended) and they wonder whether the victim will be caught and killed, or if they will outwit the killer and escape.

The chase scene in Halloween is particularly striking as it is Strode who exhibits the most violence. Myers does attempt to kill her, it's true, but she strikes back and stabs him three times - once even with the giant knife that he himself was carrying! This is therefore quite a revolutionary chase scene where the chase becomes reversed - Strode pursues Myers (in a sense) in order to defeat him and be able to escape from him. Cherry Falls on the other hand exhibits the standard chase scene, where Marliston is the one solely trying to attack Marken - and she is saved by others, rather than working to save herself.

#4: EERIE TENSION-BUILDING MUSIC

This is the only code of horror films that I have chosen to mention - predominantly because it is the most obvious, but also because it applies not only to these three films, but all films. Playing music to build up tension is a key device to use and is symbolic of a horror film - without it, audiences would not be as affected by the film's events as they would not be made to feel jumpy, tense, worried... and then utterly terrified when something happens, catching them off-guard. Scream for instance features some quite dramatic and chilling music in various scenes, increasing the perhaps absent fear of the otherwise comical-looking 'Ghostface' (I personally think that mask is hilariously bad, anyway).

Halloween is quite interesting when it comes to the music, as it has the same sections repeat throughout the film, making the overall soundtrack a very familiar and haunting piece. At key parts of the film the same melodic bars drop suddenly into the audio, and you instantly know that something is coming - good or bad, funny or terrifying, you just don't know. That's the terrific thing about the film; you come to associate the music with something chilling, but it infact indicates anything can happen. It is a semiotic effect that we come to associate it purely with the bad things - just because it signals those more than anything else. In this way, the few non-scary occasions the music starts seem very odd and unique - drawing attention to them. Cherry Falls mimics this, with dramatic and familiar music signalling the beginning of key parts of the film - perhaps inspired by Halloween itself? Many of the more modern horror films take inspiration from the 'classics'.

#5: GIANT BLOODY KNIVES...

Barring maybe #7, I don't think there is a more obvious convention of the horror genre out there. The giant blood-covered knives (or blood-covered weapons in general) are a hugely integral feature of horror films - without them, horror films probably wouldn't be horror films. Knives in particular though always seem to be the weapons of choice, getting incredibly gory very early on and never quite losing their terrifying appearance and reputation as killing tools.

Halloween has a double-whammy dosage of giant knives; before the events of the film Myers murders his sister with one, and in the film he appropriates another and proceeds to kill off Strode's two friends with it. From there, as we all know, he chases Strode around and tries to kill her, too. The poster art of Cherry Falls (embedded near the top of this entry) gives away the presence of the giant bloodied knife there too - as does the art of Halloween, infact, now that I look again - which Marliston uses to murder his victims and carve the word 'virgin' into their corpses. Scream is the most discrete of the films, therefore, but does again feature the standard giant knife as a weapon; infact, the knife is iconic of Ghostface, and is his/its signature weapon - proving just how ingrained knives are in the horror genre.

#6: ISOLATION AND ISOLATED SETTINGS

We're nearly on the home stretch now! Horror films often feature the isolation of the main characters and also the isolation of the settings of the films. Take Stephen King's The Shining for example; the hotel in that is in the middle of nowhere, and means that the main characters can't get help easily from anyone when events begin to unfold.

Isolated characters and isolated settings are not mutually exclusive; though horror films often employ the bizarre twist of having an isolated setting but with non-isolated characters in it (like in Cherry Falls where the town is small, but Marken is surrounded by all of her classmates for the majority of the film), or isolated characters in a non-isolated setting (like in Halloween where Strode is by herself in the house, but in the wider scheme of things she is in a fully-populated neighbourhood), the two are seen equally often together. The various combinations are all very common in the horror genre - but particular films put a different spin on the variables in other to try and create a new and unique set-up.

#7: DEATH, DEATH EVERYWHERE!

"Hooray! It's the last one!" you may be thinking - I'm sorry if this has gone on a while! This final point refers to the various recurring themes throughout the horror genre which all three films do display. The one I've picked out as the title for this category is 'death' - the most obvious of all. What horror film can you name that doesn't at least reference a death? I doubt that there are many at all.

The truth is, death is the overwhelming feature of any horror film. Extreme gore, violence and absurdity is present, yes - but death is even more so. Most of the good horror films out there are good because they involve the element of mystery in them - the question of who is the killer behind the mask. Common themes such as death and violence crop up so much because they symbolise the very nature of 'horror' - horrific things being done, and happening, to people.

All three films (Halloween, Scream and Cherry Falls) have numerous incidents of serious injury and death. Halloween of course references Myers' previous murder numerous times - and his new killings are of the same cold, calculated standard. Scream has the character of Ghostface inflict huge numbers of injuries, and cause huge numbers of deaths - whilst still managing to be comical. Comedic horror films are on the increase these days, with the popularity of films such as Scary Movie helping to boost crossover numbers; it seems like an impossible concept to combine the two, but it has been done very well so far and will continue to be. Finally, and I mean finally, there is Marliston from Cherry Falls - he has numerous victims, all with grievous injuries inflicted on them post-mortem and even before. Death is almost overpowering in the film, and the level of violence, mayhem and graphic content is almost off the charts.

So, in summary...

After considering the three films (Halloween, Scream and Cherry Falls) it is clear to see that the codes and conventions of horror which form the basis for the structuralism within the genre are ever-present. It becomes obvious that they centre mainly around the different themes (death, violence, sex etc.), characters' situations and also the settings, and all provide certain 'criteria' which many viewers feel that horror films must meet for them to be any good. Feminism, in turn, is evident throughout the horror genre - though the equality of women is few and far between. Cherry Falls is perhaps one of the most feministically-driven I have seen, purely due to the fact that it does not victimise sexually free-thinking women; infact, it encourages relationships to an extent as being something that is not to be condemned or have people ashamed of.

Cherry Falls is equally the lone film to exhibit any kind of deviation from the conventions of the genre, due to the same reasons stated above. The other two films, Halloween and Scream, developed the conventions and upheld them respectively - and do not appear to go against them in any way. Infact, arguably Halloween is a film which pioneered the horror genre's first codes and conventions - it is considered a classic now, and is clearly one of the first films to exhibit the majority, if not all, of the main codes and conventions of the genre today.

Overall, therefore, it is evident that both structuralism and feminism can easily be applied and found within the horror genre - and I'm sure that you will now subconsciously recognise these elements when you next watch a scary film!

I hope that you have enjoyed reading this post. As always, I'll see you in my next one - and information regarding my sources and my references when writing this are left below. Thank you for reading; until next time!

• This piece of writing is for Unit 26 of Edexcel level 3 BTEC Media (Film Studies).

• Bibliography of references/my reading to be able to write this post: here.

Marketing of a Blockbuster Film: Marvel's Avengers Assemble (2012)

Here I am again, back with another media-filled post! This time I am going to be looking at the film Avengers Assemble and how it was marketed to the public, as well as at how the producers and the companies involved with the making of the film aimed it towards a specific target audience. Hopefully you will enjoy reading it, and will maybe even learn something new about the inner workings of the film industry.

Marvel's Avengers Assemble (2012)

Avengers Assemble Poster

Avengers Assemble is a 2012 superhero film directed by Joss Whedon, based on the Avengers comics by Stan Lee. In the film, Nick Fury, director of the peacekeeping organization S.H.I.E.L.D., recruits Iron Man, Captain America, the Hulk and Thor to form a team that must stop Thor's brother Loki from subjugating Earth. It was produced by Marvel Studios and then distributed to cinemas by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, its parent film company. The film follows a collection of previous films by Marvel, each of which features a different superhero present in Avengers Assemble (barring Iron Man 2): Iron Man (2008), The Incredible Hulk (2008), Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011) and Captain America: The First Avenger (2012).

All of these films share continuity with each other and other films have been produced in the Marvel Cinematic Universe since, including Iron Man 3 (2013), Thor: The Dark World (2013), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) and Guardians of the Galaxy (2014). More films are due to be released in the future, including The Avengers: Age of Ultron in 2015, Antman also in 2015, and the next instalments in the Captain America and Guardians of the Galaxy series, both currently unnamed, set to be released in 2016 and 2017 respectively. This gives Marvel as a film production company great presence and fame, and is known throughout the world as being one of the main creators and producers of superhero films.

So, as I said above, Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures was in charge of distributing Avengers Assemble to the cinemas. The company was not responsible for the distribution of any of Marvel’s films prior to Avengers Assemble; their deal to acquire Marvel Entertainment was only completed in December 2009, agreed to at the price of $4.24 billion. Previously, Universal Studios (2008) and Paramount Pictures (2008-2011) had been responsible for distributing Marvel’s films until the deal took effect in 2012, after Marvel Studios’ existing contracts for its films had expired. Avengers Assemble was, therefore, the first film that Walt Disney Studios distributed to cinemas.

Avengers Assemble – what target audience?

As you can imagine, it was quite a surprise that Walt Disney Studios – best known for its numerous animated childrens’ films – chose to buy into a company centred around action, adventure and much on-screen violence and explosions. However, it doesn’t appear that they will be reverse this decision anytime soon – with eleven more films planned for release over the next five years, it appears that Marvel is with Walt Disney to stay. Bearing this in mind, it was especially important for the production team of Avengers Assemble to consider their target audience. The term “target audience” refers to the people whom a film’s production company wish the film to appeal to the most. Appealing to a target audience is key for any large-scale production; it is this audience who will watch the film, interact with it (both before and after release) and perhaps even recommend it to others, thus drawing in more viewers and subsequently more revenue for the company who created it. It is usually the audience, not the film-makers, who generate the most ‘hype’ and attention for a film and make it a success both in the cinema and out of it (especially if it has any kind of merchandising involved with it.)

It was also important for the directors and film companies of Avengers Assemble to consider, as well as the above, any gaps in the existing film market – films are far more likely to be successful when no similar films have been released previously. Opposing this, films which continue a unique series (as with the Marvel Cinematic Universe) are also incredibly successful as audiences want to know what is going to happen next to their favourite characters. They feel almost obliged to continue on with a series to see how it ends. Film companies who create series’ of films therefore try to employ a successful marketing campaign, as it can often make a huge difference on whether audiences feel interested in watching subsequent films, and can also make casual, new viewers more interested in going back and watching any previous films in the series if they have not seen them and also to get involved with the other elements (if any) of the franchise. This is often how ‘fandoms’ ultimately start – communities of fans who come together to celebrate what they like and talk about it and go beyond even the existing ‘canon’ of the film(s), perhaps creating their own fanfictions, fanart, and fanvideos.

Marvel and Disney together conducted lots of market research before releasing Avengers Assemble in order to decide on their target audience. Taking into account the existing market of Disney (primarily young children), and knowing the demographics of the audiences of the previous Marvel Cinematic Universe films, they primarily targeted young adults and adults – though Avengers Assemble is by no means exclusive to these age ranges. Young children are also able to enjoy the film, though they may not be able to understand all of the elements involved; this therefore makes it a polysemic film which ultimately appeals to all, much like Shrek (2001) which is primarily for young children but is also enjoyable for the older generations due to its universal themes and underlying innuendos and jokes.

Avengers Assemble ultimately appeals to these target audiences for the following reasons (amongst others), all inspired by the directors and producers:

• The Plot/Concept: An on-screen collaboration between many different superheroes had rarely been done before (if it had ever been done at all), and was therefore an innovative idea that people hadn’t ever seen or thought about. It was of interest to both comic enthusiasts and casual film-watchers alike, and was something new that Marvel was willing to try in order to gain more fans and make more revenue.
• The Genre: Fans of the superhero genre were appealed to by the film and its producers, obviously due to the fact that it featured a large number of superheroes! This genre is a universal theme which allowed fans of it to learn about the film and be inspired to watch it when looking into their favourite films in the genre already in existence – looking up those on the internet etc. will have brought up related results about Avengers Assemble due to the very thorough marketing campaign by Marvel and Disney.
• The Actors/Actresses Starring in it: Fans of particular actors and actresses were appealed to by the film because they could watch their favourite stars appear in something new. The film appealed even to those who were not a fan of the genre – therefore introducing them to it, and perhaps inspiring them to go back and watch the other superhero films if they had not already seen them in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
• The SFX: Fans of special effects and good cinematography will have loved the look of Avengers Assemble. It is a film which uses tons and tons of effects and techniques due to the fact that the powers and abilities of the superheroes have to be shown and the fight scenes, chase scenes and buildings dictated. For example, The Hulk/Bruce Banner’s actor, Mark Ruffalo, was required to wear both a prosthetic suit and a motion-capture suit in order to simulate both the Hulk’s size and movements during the filming process. This is then reflected in the film using CGI and SFX to show the Hulk in action.
• The Fandom: Finally, perhaps the most obvious reason why the film appealed to people is that it continued an already-established series of films – and there was a dedicated fanbase, or ‘fandom’, already in existence surrounding Marvel. This fandom was easily appealed to by the film as it featured all of their favourite superheroes and concepts, and brought to life the comics on which it had been based. This fandom will have also helped to appeal to even more people through online discussions and social media – attracting attention to the film and promoting its release.

How was the film advertised?

Despite the fact that Avengers Assemble was Walt Disney Studios’ first Marvel film, it was a big hit in the box office and a lot of effort was put into its advertisement and publicity prior to, and even after, the release of the film. Marvel Studios received endorsements and licenses from high-profile companies such as Acura, Jads International, Honda Motor Co. and Harley-Davidson, all of whom provided publicity and vehicles for use in the film and its promotion worldwide in exchange for monetary payments. Though this may seem counter-productive, the level of publicity achieved for the film made it a huge box-office success, with the money paid out being easily made up in the revenue produced – and more!

Other companies, such as Lego and Dr Pepper, also became involved with the marketing campaign of Avengers Assemble. Images and videos (see left and right) were made by these companies to help promote it, and created a bigger public presence for the film. Perhaps most amazingly, in Walt Disney World, the monorail was even redesigned to feature the concept art of Avengers Assemble and the S.H.I.E.L.D. logo - pretty extravagant marketing, don't you think? But very, very effective, and very, very successful.

As well as these publicity ventures, the standard measures were also employed. Posters, merchandising by Disney, trailers, teaser images - all of these were released before the film, and afterwards even more methods were used for publicity such as the creation of video games, published reviews and critiques online. Of course, the main result of the film's release was the creation of its personal 'fandom' - people involved promoted the film further and made it have a much greater online presence. Sites such as Tumblr and Twitter in particular feature lots of Avengers Assemble-related content - check out the tags, here for Tumblr and here for Twitter respectively.

Publicity and Marketing: what else did Disney organise?

Avengers Assemble was a massive success in the box office as well as in terms of its home entertainment releases; it grossed $623.4 million in North America and $895.2 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $1.518 billion. It became the third highest-grossing film worldwide as well as highest-grossing 2012 film, and this was both due to its success with the public as well as its initial marketing campaign. This marketing campaign was successful at attracting not only existing Marvel fans from its previous film and comic fan-base, but the concept of a huge ‘hero get-together’ film also appealed to new fans who had never previously been interested in the franchise. But how did Disney manage this? How did they gain the support of so many fans, both old and new?

Well, as well as the intense advertising mentioned before, many other things were also organised in order to publicise the film and accumulate fans for it. For example, the first thing that happened at all was the announcement of the plans for the film back in 2005 – yes, you read that correctly, 2005! The film had been a long time coming by its 2012 release, being rewritten and the cast updated several times, meaning that it had to be pushed back. It was in 2010 that the film was actually advertised as being close to release, being promoted at San Diego Comic Con International by a panel of actors from the cast including Samuel L. Jackson, who helped to narrate a short teaser trailer which premiered at the Con.

Following this, Marvel and Disney worked together to advertise at many other comic conventions in order to appeal widely to as many fans of the original comics and writing as possible. The cast did not appear on a huge number of chat shows or news shows (though Scarlett Johansson, Jeremy Renner, Chris Hemsworth and Robert Downey Jr. did notably appear on Good Morning America via video link from London to promote the movie) – rather, they focused on their convention appearances in order to try and attract viewers for the film. In August 2011, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios and Marvel Studios presented a look at Walt Disney Studios' upcoming film slate, which included Avengers Assemble, at the D23 Expo in Anaheim, California. The presentation featured footage from the film and appearances by the cast members yet again – a technique proven to be effective, as hearing the cast members’ stories is entertaining, and gives you an insight into how the film is being made and why they have chosen to take part in it. It makes the film seem like a positive experience for them as well as a good one to watch – and thus appeals to more people than just the comic fans. In October 2011, Marvel Studios held another presentation, this time at the New York Comic Con that featured new footage and a panel discussion including producer Kevin Feige and several cast members yet again. The first full-length trailer for the film was also released in October; this trailer, which debuted exclusively on iTunes Movie Trailers, was downloaded over 10 million times in its first 24 hours, breaking the website's record for the most-viewed trailer. This has later been surpassed, but is still a record-holding number. The theatrical trailers of Avengers Assemble appeared within many films that were already showing in cinemas, including Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, 21 Jump Street and The Hunger Games. This further promoted the film as people watching the other films had to sit and watch the trailer beforehand, perhaps being inspired to go and watch Avengers Assemble as well upon its theatrical release in April 2012 (UK & Ireland) and May 2012 (USA).

In January 2012, Marvel Studios held a global Twitter chat. The 30-minute live tweeting event featured writer/director Joss Whedon, cast members Samuel L. Jackson, Tom Hiddleston and Clark Gregg and a 10-second tease of the 30-second Super Bowl commercial that would air during Super Bowl XLVI in February. According to the Los Angeles Times, Disney paid an estimated $4 million for the 30-second spot. This was a huge success at attracting attention to the film and promoting its American release date of May 4^th.

What are the product tie-ins with the film?

As part of Marvel and Disney’s continuing collaboration on Avengers Assemble, numerous products and memorabilia have been produced in order to satisfy the inner geek of fans everywhere. As you might expect of a superhero film, t-shirts, DVDs, figurines and action figures are available, featuring and starring all of the primary cast members and characters from the film. Such figures and t-shirts are made available in a whole range of sizes, and with varying character poses and line-ups – plenty of quality items to please even the pickiest enthusiast. CDs featuring the soundtrack and score of the film were also made available, as well as various posters, framed artworks, books and games.

By games, I don’t just mean the board game variety - a video game based on the film was planned for concurrent release. The game was to be a first-person shooter/brawler for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii U, and Microsoft Windows and published by THQ, with THQ Studio Australia developing the console versions and Blue Tongue Entertainment the PC version. After THQ closed both studios, the game was cancelled.

In May 2012, Ubisoft and Marvel Entertainment announced that they are partnering to develop a motion-controlled game titled Marvel Avengers: Battle for Earth for the Wii U and Xbox 360 Kinect. The game was inspired by the "Secret Invasion" storyline and features 20 different characters. Marvel also announced a four-chapter mobile game titled Avengers Initiative, with one chapter focusing on each of Hulk, Captain America, Thor and Iron Man. This was a hugely successful move for such relatively small games in terms of storyline and playability etc, and has been played by thousands of fans.

Finally, due to the fact that it is a Marvel film as well, in December 2011 it was announced that an eight-issue comic-book prelude to the film, written by Christopher Yost and Eric Pearson with art by Luke Ross and Daniel HDR, would be released in March 2012. In February 2012, Marvel announced the release of a second limited series comic book tie-in, Black Widow Strikes written by Fred Van Lente. Additionally, the title Avengers Assemble was launched in March 2012, written by Brian Michael Bendis with art by Mark Bagley and features the same Avengers line-up as the film battling a new incarnation of the supervillain team Zodiac. These comic tie-ins are one of the most central products produced by Marvel, successfully expanding their already huge universe and giving greater detail to specific aspects of the film itself and beyond.

Where was the film premiered? Did it win any awards?

There were two separate premieres for Avengers Assemble; the first was the worldwide premiere at the El Capitan theatre in Hollywood, California in the United States on the 11^th of April, and the second was at the VUE cinema in Westfield, London, on the 19^th of April as the European premiere of the film. Due to the differing film titles across the two continents (the film is known as Avengers Assemble only in the UK and Ireland, renamed as not to be confused with the UK TV show The Avengers) the branding and marketing was done slightly differently as to appeal to as many people as possible.

The European premiere was attended by cast members Robert Downey Jr., Scarlett Johansson, Chris Hemsworth, Jeremy Renner, Tom Hiddleston, Mark Ruffalo, Cobie Smulders, and Clark Gregg – producer Kevin Feige also made appearances on the red carpet throughout the night. It was a huge success with numerous newspaper articles (such as this one by the Daily Mail about Scarlett Johannson) and reports being produced about the film, further advertising it to the wider public; on top of this, videos and excerpts from the premiere were uploaded to YouTube by Marvel UK, allowing those who hadn’t been able to attend to at least get a taste of the action that had taken place in London. One such video is here (embedded below also); this sums up all of the events and shows everything from the cast on the red carpet, the audiences and fans coming together to see the film ahead of its official theatrical release, the cast and crew being interviewed, to short excerpts from the film itself.

On May 1, 2012, executives from Marvel Studios, along with actors Tom Hiddleston and Clark Gregg, rang the opening bell of the New York Stock Exchange in honor of the film's theatrical release. This signaled the beginning of a very successful run for the film, following its UK/Ireland release and just ahead of its US release. As a result of its high-quality cinematography, acting and effects, Avengers Assemble garnered numerous awards and award nominations, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects and a British Academy Film Award nomination for Best Special Visual Effects. The film was also nominated for three Critics' Choice Movie Awards, thirteen People's Choice Awards (winning three), eleven Teen Choice Awards (winning two), six Saturn Awards (winning four), and six VES Awards (winning two), as well as the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation Long Form. As you can see, it was a huge success – and continues to be so, even though two years have passed since its release!

Post-release: what is the cultural presence of the film now?

Perhaps the final thing to talk about, then, is how all of this marketing and merchandising by Marvel and Disney has panned out. Has it been a successful with the people? And has the test of time eradicated the success of the film, or has it remained?

The simple answer? The film is as popular as ever.

The online presence of the film is staggering, to say the least. Since the release of the film in 2012, the online ‘fandom’ and cult presence of the film has rocketed. On sites such as Twitter, Tumblr, DeviantART and YouTube, numerous fan works can be found showcasing unique takes on the film and inventing new storylines outside of the ‘canon’ of the Cinematic Universe. Fanfiction.net, for example, is also inundated with Avengers fanfiction; in the comics category, ‘Avengers’ is the tenth most-written for category, having 1.6k fanfic submissions, and in the films category, it is the second most popular with a whopping 27.6k fanfictions, only losing out to the Star Wars franchise which has accumulated 33.1k works. If this isn’t an indicator of cult and critical success with the masses, I don’t know what does!

This also goes to show that a powerful fandom can go a long way, and can contribute huge amounts to the overall success of a film. The fact that people have put this much effort into creating their own stories and works surrounding the Avengers Assemble story is simply amazing. In particular, I’d like to leave you with this: my favourite ever fan-video about the Avengers team, an MV (‘music video’) featuring Fall Out Boy’s My Songs Know What You Did In The Dark. Though the actual picture quality isn’t great, the concept and structure is, matching the song exactly. I think it shows the essence of the Marvel fandom – that we’re a hard-working, dedicated, and motivated bunch.

It is with this that I will now leave you. I hope that this post has been informative and useful in educating you about the marketing and merchandising of Marvel’s Avengers Assemble – understandably I now have the urge to go and watch it, so do excuse me!

Later, fellow Media enthusiasts!

• This piece of writing is for Unit 26 of Edexcel level 3 BTEC Media (Film Studies).
• A bibliography of all of the sources and sites I have used to write this article can be found here.

Me and My Movies: Superhero Films

Hello! I'm back again for my third post (well, my second REAL post) on this blog! I'm here to write another assignment for my BTEC Media course, this time titled 'Me and My Movies'. This assignment focuses on film audiences and how they interact with films before, during and after release, and because it's my favourite genre ever, I'll be focusing on superhero films. My aim is to explain different audience theories and ideas by applying them to various films within the genre.
Enjoy!

Introduction to the Genre

Promotional Poster
for Captain Marvel

Superhero films are still some of the most popular (and some of the most abundant) films released in the 21st century. The genre's creation was almost instantaneous following the release of the first superhero comics in the 1940s - but back then, these ideas were often adapted into serials for young children rather than into the blockbuster movies that we see today. Adventures of Captain Marvel is credited as the first serial of this kind, being aired in 1941, and after this followed many other serials including Batman (1943), Captain America (1944) and Superman (1948).

In the subsequent decades, the popularity of the genre severely declined. It was only in 1978, when the first major big-budget superhero feature film (Superman, directed by Richard Donner) was released, that the genre rose to prominence once more and recaptured the attention of the world. Since then it has thrived, with some of the film industry's biggest film companies such as Marvel and DC rising to fame. Funnily enough, it is these two companies that I will be discussing later in much more detail.

It is a well-known fact that superhero films are perhaps one of the most successful combined branches of the sci-fi and action genres to exist. These films are known for their good music and scoring, their fight and chase scenes, their violence and gore (where appropriate) and even some developing romances. But why is this? And why do audiences become so invested with what is going on in them?

Pre-Release: How Are Audiences Involved?

Before a film, any film, is even released, there are many ways in which audiences can become involved with it. Film-makers ensure that this is possible in order to maximise the successes of their productions. Some of the biggest methods are detailed below, but other, smaller ones include focus groups, questionnaires and surveys, reading blogs and embedded adverts.

Avengers: Age of Ultron

One of the most prominent and obvious ways for audiences to get involved with a film is through their watching of a trailer or some short clips from the film, released as teasers for the full production. Potential fans, if they like the look of the trailer, may ‘share’ it on their social networks or discuss it online, such as in the YouTube comments section if the trailer is uploaded to YouTube; this is therefore  active involvement before the film has even been released,  as they are being motivated enough to share their thoughts and views about the trailer further. Three superhero films with released trailers at the moment are Man of Steel, Avengers: Age of Ultron and Disney's Big Hero 6; all of these films’ trailers have been well-received by critics and the public as a whole, creating a positive ‘hype’ which may, in turn, inspire more people to go and watch the films through the positive responses being conveyed. Due to the fact that both Age of Ultron and Big Hero 6 are both still upcoming, responses (especially positive ones) are even more important, widely promoting it and further increasing the possibilities of full-cinema audiences on the box office weekend.

Captain America: The
Winter Soldier

Private advance screenings are also a common method for professional film critics (and even sometimes casual ones!) to become involved with a film ahead of its full release. Those who attend have the opportunity to watch films before the general public and write reviews to try and publicise the good quality (or not, in some cases) of the film that they have just seen. An example of a professional review that has recently been written about a superhero film is this article in The Guardian about Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Though released online after the film's general release, it is still a good example of the kinds of reviews which are often written before the release date - comprehensive and clever, but not giving too much away. The premiere screenings of films are often also used to this effect, with a wide range of fans and non-fans alike attending to see them and then share their opinions afterwards. Potential fans, reading these reviews and opinions wherever they appear, then formulate their own opinions of whether they think the film that they have just read about will be good or not, and will make a more informed decision as to whether they will go and see it. This is therefore an even more active method of involvement before a film's release – attending an event and writing reviews, which then provoke even wider involvement. One day I'd love to be able to attend a screening like this - but something tells me that might just be a dream to chase rather than a reality!

Perhaps one of the most prolific forms of involvement with films before they are released, done again by members of the public, is the use of social networking sites or forums online to discuss the film and by doing so improve public awareness of its release. Although not a superhero film, the third instalment in the Hunger Games film quadrilogy, Mockingjay: Part 1¸is due out later this month and has already been widely discussed online despite its limited marketing campaign. Speculation is still relatively high, but now that posters and the main full-length trailer have been released, discussion about these has also begun with impressive results. This form of involvement is so effective and well-known due to the various social networks which are utilised by fans and potential fans alike as part of it. As examples of sites used for discussion purposes, Twitter is predominantly used for passing comments and for having short, spontaneous conversations, whereas Tumblr is, on the whole, a base for the more dedicated fans to pass around their ideas and predictions and for widespread, detailed discussion of elements of the film.

McDonalds' 'Happy Meal'
logo in 2014

Finally, promotional campaigns (including 'viral marketing') can also do great things for boosting a film’s success upon release if they are done properly. Viral marketing is a method of attracting greater public involvement with the film, prompting the audience to try and find out facts and film exclusives for themselves as well as waiting for the official announcements. Good viral marketing involves events, interviews and press conferences, as well as merchandising and minor tactical publicity links (e.g. within fast-food chains and restaurants). It ultimately can help to raise public awareness and also to involve potential fans in the process of the film’s release. Some aspects of campaigns can be targeted specifically to different age groups – films for younger children, for example, could be merchandised by the placement of small action figures in children’s fast-food meals, such as McDonalds’ ‘Happy Meals’. Finding these toys, the children may then ask their parents to take them to see the film when it is released if they think that the toys look like exciting characters to learn about and view on-screen. This sort of tactic is famously by the Pokémon Company when a new Pokémon film is released – the most recent example being Genesect and the Legend Awakened.

As mentioned above, Age of Ultron is Marvel's closest-to-release upcoming superhero film. Over the past few months tension and excitement has been building up, and quite recently at San Diego Comic Con the biggest announcements about the film and (on a wider scale) Marvel's line-up of future superhero films have been made, causing fans to go absolutely crazy. Marvel is well-known for its successful viral marketing - and this film is no different. The first step of their viral marketing for the film was to get fans to piece together the promotional poster, composed of eight separate character-oriented pieces. These were released slowly, limited to two per day, building trepidation and excitement for the full art. Other marketing measures, including released clips (such as this one, and this one on a different YouTube channel, giving Marvel's reach an even wider scope), promotional images and set pictures (here), news coverage of official speculation (here) and even cast interviews as mentioned above (Chris Evans' interview from SDCC is here) are still being used now, giving fans have a lot to think about and discuss online before the film is released on May 1st 2015. Social media is integral to a good viral marketing campaign and it is easy and obvious to see that Marvel as a company is aware of this, updating its Twitter page, Facebook page and YouTube channel regularly.

Where Audiences Watch Films and Media Types

Audiences are able to watch films in a variety of places, and through a variety of means. Obviously the most common places for people to watch films are at the cinema on the big screen or at home when the DVD or blu-ray has been released, but there are others, such as on YouTube, through illegal downloading and on streaming services such as Netflix, Hulu, BBC iPlayer and on-demand services.

At the cinema, a large number of people can get together to see the film and share a community experience of seeing it. Friends and families often go together to be able to socialise and have a fun time – and ultimately to relax from the stresses of life that they are experiencing. Particularly at screenings of superhero films, from the audience, you often hear people gasp, screech, moan and laugh in unison as the film plays, as lots of people have the same realisations, annoyances and exhilarations at the same time as others who are seeing the film with them. The effects and visuals used in superhero films are usually better-suited to the larger screen and the bigger speakers, as they are more atmospheric and higher-quality. It also means that audiences can appreciate the quality and content of the film more, as it is easier for them to see and they can take in the whole experience on a much higher level. Usually many of the audience members will share interests and a common liking of the film – and if the film is in a series, such as the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), it is even likely that fans of any previous films have returned together to see what the next instalment has to offer. This is how films ultimately generate ‘fandoms’ – huge collections of fans who come together to bond over what it is they like, and sometimes even go as far as to deeply involve themselves in the fictional worlds, writing their own ‘fanfictions’, creating their own ‘fanfilms’ and designing their own ‘fanart’. These fandoms are hugely integral to the successes of some of the biggest superhero films out currently, including Marvel’s The Avengers, the Marvel cinematic universe as a whole and DC’s Batman series, due to the publicity and ‘hype’ which they generate. A film with a large fandom, or film series with large fandoms, are almost guaranteed to be more successful than those without, as everyone in those said fandoms is likely to go and see any upcoming productions, therefore guaranteeing a large amount of visitors – and thus a higher chance of a box office success.

DVDs and blu-rays, as mentioned before, are the other common method of viewing films that people use. They can be played using specialised players, in laptops, in some gaming consoles (such as the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One) and in computers – making them a highly popular and universal method alongside digital downloads and rentals. They can be used in either individual or in group situations; they can be watched alone for personal enjoyment, together with friends to socialise, or with family members as a bonding experience. This means that DVD viewings are not just limited to fans – others can also be a part of the viewing experience, willingly or not. Again, fandom mentality and the existence of collectives is a huge part of the success of the DVD and blu-ray format; huge groups of people are motivated to buy the film in one of these formats after seeing it and enjoying it, allowing for endless replay value for a (relatively) small amount of money. Fandoms promote the sale of DVDs and eagerly await the release dates, perhaps even organising small parties for the films to be watched again communally. Film clubs and groups also endlessly benefit from the existence of DVDs and blu-rays, as it means that a huge number of existing films can be discussed as well as the ones currently being shown in cinemas and on television. This success exists throughout every genre, but in the superhero genre especially; it is very common to find film enthusiasts within this field excitedly posting about the upcoming releases, promoting the films and ensuring that as many fans as possible are aware.

The final three methods which I mentioned earlier I shall combine into one single paragraph, as they all involve the same premise – digital viewings, without the need for any physical product or movement. YouTube is the biggest video-sharing website on the internet, and often, even though mostly illegal (with the non-illegal exception films being those in the public domain), people will upload films to the site so that they can be viewed by anyone who searches for them. This is mostly for the benefit of the individual, as it is most likely that a single person will search for a film online to watch it themselves, though it is a particularly successful viewing method in educational environments such as schools, colleges and universities. This is therefore one of the most limited of ways in which superhero films are viewed, as they are not very educational unless used in classes such as media studies (media-ception right here...!), film studies and English language for analysis. Illegal downloading is very much the same as the above – primarily used by individuals to watch films at home, and educational establishments to access content without the need to have to pay. Finally, streaming services. These have to be paid for by the user, and often have a fixed monthly fee in exchange for access to as many films (or a large set number of films). These again are methods which bring together huge numbers of fans and allow fandoms to pursue their interests – by having the films available to watch at any time, people can easily catch up on anything that they’ve missed and then discuss and converse afterwards about what it is they have watched. Due to the vast number of superhero films on the market, this is perhaps one of the most popular viewing methods after the cinema and DVDs and blu-rays, as people do not have to spend a lot of money going to the cinema to see each individual film or on buying each individual disk set – they can have the films all in one place to be viewed anytime. Perhaps the most prominent disadvantage of this, however, is that not all films are added due to copyright and other restrictions, and it can take a long time even after the release of the DVDs and blu-rays for the films to be made available for streaming.

Where audiences watch films often changes how they are viewed, with each style of viewing corresponding to one of the three main media types: primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary media is that which requires your undivided attention, such as a film or a TV show series – and as such, it is received primarily in places such as cinemas and theatres where the audience’s only purpose is to see that work as it plays out. In terms of films, the effects will be exciting, bold and bright, trying to capture and retain the attention of those watching them. The plotlines will also be considerably more complex, as a lot of information has to be packed into a very short space of time – meaning that the audience must keep watching to follow the story. Secondary media is more relaxed, such as a soap opera or a radio show, which plays in the background on the TV or the radio as an accompaniment to other tasks such as cleaning or cooking, predominantly when at home, though some kinds of secondary media can be enjoyed in other places – such as music through earphones, downloaded films on public transport (where it is being used to just pass the time etc) and YouTube videos being watched on the go. Secondary media is not the main focus of attention, but it is being enjoyed all the same – and doesn’t require as much thought, as a vague grip on the action is all you need. Finally, tertiary media is the sort that audiences are not even aware of the fact that they are viewing – such as advertisements on the side of a bus or in shop windows, or pages in something printed, such as magazines or newspapers. This is media that you are unlikely to knowingly pay attention to, subconsciously taking in the information rather than having to think about it. This is due to the overwhelming amount of tertiary media in today’s world; we obviously know that it’s there, but we don’t pay as much attention to it as we think as there is simply too much, which would take too much time.

How Are Audiences Affected By Watching Superhero Films?

Whilst watching films, audiences are renowned for their active involvement. Many sympathise with characters, pay close attention to the storylines, and overall form a judgement about each aspect of the film which composes it (e.g. the visual effects, the music, the lighting). Outside of the viewing itself, individuals may respond throughout, perhaps commenting on their social networks about what they're seeing or talk to those around them, either in-person (if they are there) or through digital means such as texting, phone calls, emails and other apps like Snapchat, Instagram and Skype.

Denis McQuail is one theorist who has developed ideas regarding the purpose of films and what audiences use them for. His research largely contributes to the above ideas about what they are used for – for pure entertainment value, for social interaction, to ‘escape’ from reality, and for other purposes such as finding out information and educational research and value. In particular his research has now developed into varying strands, one of which could arguably be said to be the ‘uses and gratifications’ model, which speaks about what audiences get from films and the benefits they receive from them.

Superhero films, in this respect, are no different, and his findings are applicable to them as much as any other genre. Why do people watch superhero films? Their content is often so unrealistic and surreal that many would not see the point, especially if they are the kind to try and find some kind of ‘value’ in all films made. However, others will see that they can be viewed for enjoyment, for a sense of community, and for more, such as escapism and maybe even, to some degree, sexual satisfaction. In terms of ‘uses and gratifications’, the same superhero film may be able to gratify the different needs of different individuals. Different needs are associated with individual personalities, stages of maturation, backgrounds and social roles, and all of these are certainly seen to play a part when considering how fandoms develop – different age ranges, genders and sexualities band together over different films. Superhero films such as those made by Marvel may not only be able to fulfil the entertainment needs of some people, but also the needs for escapism of others – proving an unrealistic world that people can become deeply involved in as to ignore the troubles of their own lives and instead focus on the brilliant stories and occurrences within the fictional one.

A superhero film which can explain this concept very well is Marvel's The Avengers; this film is all about a team of very different people who come together to save the world from Loki. This film gives out positive messages about accepting the differences of others, caring for each other, and working together towards something good rather than fighting each other and getting nowhere. The 'team' spirit of the film is also very inspirational - getting across to young people good moral values such as friendship, responsibility and resilience. Audience involvement and the provocation of audience empathy for the characters are two of the most obvious signs of a successful superhero film. If the audience wants to the heroes to succeed in saving the world (or whatever it is that they are doing) then they have been successfully motivated by the film to invest in its world and the people they are watching. Developmental factors also seem to be related to some motives for purposeful viewing; Judith van Evra, for example, argues that children may be particularly likely to watch TV in search of information as they grow, hoping to explore their world and everything going on in it.

A second theory is the hypodermic needle theory, which suggests that the mass media has a huge and powerful influence on audiences, causing them to think in certain ways. It was first thought of in the 1920s and implies that the media 'injects' ideas and ways of thinking into passive individuals, who then all respond in the same way to whatever they are told - there is no individuality. In the past, examples of this have included an audio dramatisation of H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds; when broadcast, many of those listening were actually fully convinced that martians were invading Earth - clearly showing the profound effect the media can sometimes have. This theory has long since been discredited, however, as it has a very limiting perspective on the responses audiences give to media. As such, it hardly applies to superhero films - as it is now clearer more than ever that what we are witnessing is fiction, and that nothing occurring on-screen is actually a representation of what is going on in real life. One superhero film that could, under this theory, potentially have an effect is Captain America: The First Avenger, purely because of the advanced fictional technologies it shows. If not educated on such manners, potentially people could believe that the treatments and medical science exhibited are actually being used on real people - thus the ideas could be 'injected' into the individuals.

Another audience theory which has been developed is the two-step flow theory, which refers to the active involvement of audiences in the communication process between the mass media and individuals. It says that we as humans are more influenced by each other than the mass media which we experience - hence the creators of 'opinion leaders' who direct our thoughts on specific topics after sharing their own opinions with us. This is therefore a 'two-step' process (hence the name): from the media to the opinion leaders, and from the opinion leaders to the individuals. In terms of the film industry, and in particular with regard to superhero films, this process refers to how a small group of individuals hear the plot of a film (e.g. if they heard the plot of the upcoming Guardians of the Galaxy 2) and then share what they have found out with their friends. Those friends then go on to tell their friends, and from there the process continues without end, with each person's group of friends learning from them what that person's friend has told them beforehand. Once the film is in the cinemas, this process begins anew; the original few people share their opinions on the film, which then prompts their friends to go and see it and afterwards share their opinions - and so on. The scope of the process is unlimited, as inevitably there will always be someone who has not already heard the information before. Because of this, often people's opinions on films can change over time; the 'flow' can reverse or change direction. This is particularly evident with regard to the recently-released Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles film. Initially, it seemed to look like a huge disappointment from the clips and teasers which were released, but one seen in one full film in the cinemas, the reviews have actually been largely positive.

The final two theories that I am going to mention work quite well together. There is the encoding-decoding model devised by Stuart Hall, and the preferred readings theory. The encoding-decoding model, in its most basic form, is the concept that the producers of media texts 'encode' meanings and ideologies into them (the 'preferred readings' of the producer), and then the audiences and individuals 'decode' meanings from those texts - and not everyone takes the same meanings from the same text. This also means that many people do not take the preferred reading of the text as perhaps intended by the producers - they instead either modify or completely change the messages. So essentially: if people watch enough films and take messages from them, in many instances, the messages encoded into texts will be completely different to those decoded by audience members - leaving quite a huge gap between what the producers were trying to convey and what the audiences actually got from the text.

These two theories ultimately relate to how audiences 'read' texts - how they decode the information within them, and whether they follow the preferred reading, whether they adapt it, or whether they change it entirely. A rather humorous example of a film which can be taken in two very drastically different ways is Spiderman. On the one hand, it is the story of a mutated teenager who was bitten by a spider and suddenly transformed into a superhero. On the other... could it actually just be a metaphor for the drastic nature of puberty? Just have a think about that. Factors which help to contribute to these assumptions, both of this film and others in the genre, include the plotlines, sub-plots, music, acting quality and character expression.

How Can Audiences Be Involved With a Film After Its Release?

Finally, the last thing I would like to address is the ways in which audiences and individuals can respond to films after they have been released. The most obvious is the fandom experience which I have repeatedly referenced throughout. These huge groups of fans often come together online to create works (such as fanfiction and fanart on websites such as Fanfiction.net and DeviantART) that tie in with their favourite films, filling in any gaps in the plot and even creating new lines of thought that other fans can experience and enjoy. This is particularly relevant when considering 'shipping' - the act of wishing for two characters to be together in a friendship, a platonic romance or a full-on romance. Fanfictions and fanart pieces are often created with the intention of changing the film 'canon' to suit the liking of their creators better - such is seen for all superhero films, including Guardians of the Galaxy; the 'ship' of Peter Quill and Gamora is particularly prominent and popular, with hundreds of works appearing within the first week of the film's release.

Large-scale conventions are often held which film buffs attend - with the superhero geeks and nerds rising to huge prominence. Events such as the San Diego Comic Con, the London Film and Comic Con and MCM Comic Con all regularly involve 'cosplay' (costume play) and prompt thousands of superhero fans to dress up as their favourite heroes for the events. The gatherings can also be film-specific; the Star Wars film series, for example, has a huge following with thousands (if not tens of thousands) of fans coming together to celebrate. These conventions often host a wide array of events, including (if big enough) signings with cast members, talks and panels with the creators of the films, competitions and a merchandise store.

On a smaller scale (yet still on a huge scale) other concepts which I have previously mentioned are also applicable to the post-film release period. Social networking, for example, is a huge part of the ways in which fans can be active after the films have been released. Marvel and DC are continually updating their social feeds, as well, not only provoking new conversations between fans but also sustaining old ones, such as the discussion of 'plot holes' and open endings - and, more often than not, those awful cliffhangers that you just don't know what to do with. Twitter, Tumblr and Facebook (on the film's pages) are again the main sites used for this purpose, attracting thousands of people and involving a wide variety of people from all ages, sexual orientations and genders.

And last but not least, fans may invest in writing lengthy reviews of the superhero films, in buying merchandise if they enjoyed the films, and in searching for any online extras and add-ons to the films that they can enjoy. These three pastimes serve to fill in the void until the next film as well as the previous acts (if there is going to be a next film, which in most superhero universes there inevitably will be). Anyone is able to write a review and buy merchandise, and often fans can be seen walking the streets in t-shirts, hoodies and costumes related to their favourite shows or films. Even bags and backpacks can now be dedicated to films - maybe check those who are walking in front of you or around you sometime, and see what they're wearing or carrying!

This concludes my analysis, therefore, of the purposes of superhero films and how they are received and interpreted by audiences. I hope that this (rather lengthy) post has been enjoyable and useful, and that you may come back for more!

Until next time!

• This piece of writing is for Unit 26 of Edexcel level 3 BTEC Media (Film Studies).
• A bibliography of all of the sources and sites I have used to write this article can be found here.